‘Anti-Muslim hostility’ definition falls short, say senior Muslim figures
Focus on intent and hostility rather than racism means groups such as Islamophobia Response Unit will not adopt new definition
Faith leaders, charities and academics have criticised the government’s definition of “anti-Muslim hostility” as “falling short” of adequately recognising the spectrum of racism and discrimination affecting Muslims across the UK.
The government announced a non-statutory, working definition of anti-Muslim hostility on Monday night as part of its Protecting What Matters strategy. It comes a little over a year after the government tasked a working group led by the former Conservative attorney general for England and Wales, Dominic Grieve, to come up with a definition of what it then called “anti-Muslim hatred/Islamophobia”.
Muslim groups had previously told Hyphen they wanted any official definition to use the term Islamophobia and to encompass both the racialisation of Muslims and the systemic prejudices they face.
But the eventual government statement from Monday night said:
“Anti-Muslim hostility is intentionally engaging in, assisting or encouraging criminal acts — including acts of violence, vandalism, harassment, or intimidation, whether physical, verbal, written or electronically communicated — that are directed at Muslims because of their religion or at those who are perceived to be Muslim, including where that perception is based on assumptions about ethnicity, race or appearance.
“It is also the prejudicial stereotyping of Muslims or people perceived to be Muslim, including because of their ethnic or racial backgrounds or their appearance, and treating them as a collective group defined by fixed and negative characteristics, with the intention of encouraging hatred against them, irrespective of their actual opinions, beliefs or actions as individuals.
“It is engaging in unlawful discrimination where the relevant conduct — including the creation or use of practices and biases within institutions — is intended to disadvantage Muslims in public and economic life.”
Data from the Home Office shows that 115,990 hate crimes were recorded by the police in England and Wales in the year up to March 2025, of which 7,164 were religious hate crimes. Of these, 45% were targeted at Muslims — a 19% increase since the previous year.
Shaista Gohir, a crossbench peer and a member of Grieve’s working group, said she was pleased with the government’s definition, adding that it had adopted “most of the wording” put forward.
“While the term ‘racialisation’ has been removed because it is not widely understood by the public, I am pleased that explanatory wording describing the process has been included in its place, including in the accompanying notes,” she said.
“The definition also recognises that Muslims are frequently targeted not only for their beliefs but also because of their characteristics such as appearance, race and ethnicity. Acknowledging that Muslims are racialised validates these lived experiences.”
Majid Iqbal, chief executive of the Islamophobia Response Unit (IRU), a charity that provides legal support to victims of Islamophobia, welcomed some elements of the definition but raised concerns about its practical effectiveness.
Iqbal noted the definition’s repeated use of the word “intentional”, which he said created a “very high threshold” that most discrimination cases would not be able to meet.
“Our casework shows that Muslims face bias, institutional barriers and microaggressions that aren’t intentional, but are no less harmful,” he said.
Speaking from his experience supporting victims, Iqbal said most discrimination lacked provable intent, and that this definition would be “ineffective” to lean on for some cases the IRU handles.
“Recruitment processes excluding Muslims with Islamic names typically reflect unconscious bias,” he said by way of example.
Related content
Iqbal also criticised the government’s choice of “anti-Muslim hostility” over the term Islamophobia, arguing that “hostility” implied active aggression and failed to capture discrimination arising from systemic barriers.
“The internationally recognised term ‘Islamophobia’, like homophobia or transphobia, better captures the systemic, often unconscious, nature of this form of prejudice,” he said.
Iqbal added that the IRU would not be adopting or endorsing the definition at this stage.
“We welcome some elements of the definition and guidance, particularly around racialisation, but we’re concerned about practical effectiveness. Success will be measured by outcomes, not language,” Iqbal said.
Dr Wajid Akhter, the secretary general of the Muslim Council of Britain, had also previously told Hyphen he would like to see the government adopt the term Islamophobia. Akhter criticised the government’s definition as a “diminished version” of that which was recommended by the working group.
The process has been marred by controversy since the working group submitted its findings last year, with right-wing groups claiming that adopting a definition could restrict free speech. In a speech announcing the definition on Monday, communities secretary Steve Reed said the wording on which the government had settled “safeguards our fundamental right to freedom of speech”. In the accompanying notes, the government states that it includes explicit protection for anyone “ridiculing or insulting” Islam.
“Given the concerns about dilution, those that were driving this dilution, the lack of transparency and meaningful engagement with grassroots community representatives throughout the process and the need for us to consult widely on this important matter, we are unable to endorse such a definition at the present time,” Akhter said.
“It is for the government to convince and earn the trust of the British Muslim community that this definition will help stem the rising discrimination, systematic othering and harms that British Muslims are facing on a daily basis.”
Amina Easat-Daas, a senior lecturer in politics at De Montfort University, said the definition represented a “step in the right direction” but “disappointingly falls short”.
Her main concern is the definition’s failure to recognise Islamophobia as a form of racism.
“Islamophobia relies on the racialisation of Muslims,” she said. “This means that Muslims, those perceived to be Muslim, or practices and places assumed to be linked to Muslims, such as halal slaughter, are stereotyped as being universally problematic and threatening.
“This flawed perception is then called upon to legitimate restrictive and exclusionary policy and legislation towards Muslims, racist rhetoric and Islamophobic attacks on people, practices and place.”
By focusing on “hostility” rather than racism, she argued, the definition places greater emphasis on individual actors and dismisses systemic discrimination. Combined with its non-statutory nature, this means “Muslims who face Islamophobia cannot readily access anti-racism laws and the legal protections that these afford,” she added.
She also warned that the definition risks creating a “hierarchy of racism”.
Related content
”The focus on hostility rather than racism puts understandings of Islamophobia out of kilter with similar religiously-rooted racisms such as antisemitism or anti-Sikh racism. This arguably differential treatment risks generating a hierarchy of racism whilst at the same time omitting the urgent need to challenge all forms of racism simultaneously.“
Salman Al-Azami, a senior lecturer in language, media and communication at Liverpool Hope University, said he was “disappointed at the government’s decision to use the term ‘anti-Muslim hostility’ rather than the worldwide accepted term ‘Islamophobia’”.
In 2018, the all-party parliamentary group (APPG) on British Muslims defined Islamophobia as a form of racism “that targets expressions of Muslimness or perceived Muslimness”.
Al-Azami added: “The APPG on British Muslims’ definition of Islamophobia clearly states that the remit of the definition is the victim’s Muslimness and perceived Muslimness, and not Islam as a religion. The Labour Party, then in opposition, endorsed that definition. It is not clear why the current Labour government refuses to recognise hostilities against Muslims as Islamophobia.”
